Spanish Empire
The Spanish empire was an imperial complex centered on Spain.
Structure
The empire was principally subdivided into royal councils. These were:
- Council of Italy
- Council of the Indies
- Council of Flanders
There were also up to a dozen royal appellate courts (real audiencia) based in various cities. These jurisdictions were highly variable.
Military deployments were managed as captaincy generals (capitanía general).
Administratively, the colonies were governed as viceroyalties under royally appointed governor-generals. (They also often chaired co-located audencias ex officio.) Each had a royally apportioned budget (real situado) for handling the indigenous population and piracy.
New Spain
The viceroyalty of New Spain was created to govern North American and Asian colonies. It was effectively declared by Hernán Cortés upon the conquest of the Aztecs, but only granted royal recognition in 1535. It fell under the purview of the Council of the Indies.
As was done during the reconquista, conquered peoples were 'entrusted' (encomienda) to administrators by royal grant. Unlike the Moorish grantees however, these New World encomenderos established systems of forced labor. This led to substantial controversy in continental Europe as Catholic missionaries documented and reported on inhumane treatment. There were also successful revolts, like as the Taíno rebellion which recaptured a western portion of Hispaniola. In addition, the encomenderos were quickly organizing into a powerful class of nobility. Charles I therefore resolved to abolish the system; the New Laws (Leyes Nuevas) were proclaimed in 1542.
The repartimiento system was the intended replacement. This still involved forced labor under royally granted administrators, but the labor was restricted in duration (e.g., 4 weeks per year). Over time the hacienda system became more commonplace; these were private firms that either directly employed workers or practiced tenant farming.
Peru
The viceroyalty of Peru was established in 1542 to govern South America, alongside the proclamation of the New Laws. The encomienda particularly failed in this region, leading to the adoption of Incan imperial practices like the mit'a (i.e., tax labor).
New Grenada
Within the viceroyalty of Peru, the real audencia of Santa Fe was established in 1549. It was granted direct rule over a large area, and came to be known as the New Kingdom of Granada (Nuevo Reino de Granada). In 1717 it was formally split from the viceroyalty of Peru, becoming the viceroyalty of New Grenada.
Rio de la Plata
The southeastern portion of the viceroyalty of Peru was split off in 1776, establishing the viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Buenos Aires served as the capital.
Following the May Revolution, royalists moved the capital to Montevideo. José Rondeau captured the city in 1814, permanently ending the viceroyalty.