= Statistics = A branch of [[CategoryMathematics|mathematics]]. == Foundations == * [[Statistics/Collider|Collider]] * [[Statistics/Combinations|Combinations]] * [[Statistics/Confounder|Confounder]] * [[Statistics/Correlation|Correlation]] * [[Statistics/Logit|Logit]] * [[Statistics/MahalanobisDistance|Mahalanobis distance]] * [[Statistics/Mediator|Mediator]] * [[Statistics/Moderator|Moderator]] * [[Statistics/Permutations|Permutations]] == Uncertainty == * [[Statistics/AverageAbsoluteDeviation|Average absolute deviation]] * [[Statistics/Covariance|Covariance]] * [[Statistics/DegreesOfFreedom|Degrees of freedom]] * [[Statistics/Entropy|Entropy]] * [[Statistics/Variance|Variance]] * [[Statistics/PooledVariance|Pooled variance]] == Probability == * [[Statistics/BayesRule|Bayes' rule]] * [[Statistics/ConditionalProbability|Conditional probability]] * [[Statistics/JointProbability|Joint probability]] * [[Statistics/SigmaAlgebraNotation|σ Algebra notation]] * [[Statistics/TestStatistic|Test statistic]] == Prediction == * [[Statistics/BayesianNotation|Bayesian notation]] * [[Statistics/ConditionalExpectations|Conditional expectations]] * [[Statistics/Moments|Moments]] == Tests == * [[Statistics/CollinearityTest|Collinearity test]] * [[Statistics/CronbachsAlpha|Cronbach's alpha]] * [[Statistics/FTest|F test]] * [[Statistics/GrangerCausalityTest|Granger causality test]] * [[Statistics/HosmerLemeshowTest|Hosmer-Lemeshow test]] * [[Statistics/HotellingsTSquaredTest|Hotelling's t-squared test]] * [[Statistics/KolmogorovSmirnovTest|Kolmogorov-Smirnov test]] * [[Statistics/LagrangeMultiplierTest|Lagrange multiplier test]] * [[Statistics/LikelihoodRatioTest|Likelihood-ratio test]] * [[Statistics/MardiasTest|Mardia's test]] * [[Statistics/MillsRatio|Mills' ratio]] * [[Statistics/PearsonsChiSquaredTest|Pearson's chi-squared test]] * [[Statistics/SobelTest|Sobel test]] * [[Statistics/StudentsTTest|Student's t test]] * [[Statistics/WaldTest|Wald test]] * [[Statistics/WaldWolfowitzRunsTest|Wald-Wolfowitz runs test]] == Samples == * [[Statistics/MultistageSample|Multistage sample]] * [[Statistics/NeymanAllocation|Neyman allocation]] * [[Statistics/ProbabilityProportionalToSizeSample|Probability proportional to size sample]] * [[Statistics/SimpleRandomSample|Simple random sample]] * [[Statistics/Stratification|Stratification]] * [[Statistics/SurveyFrame|Survey frame]] * [[Statistics/SurveySampling|Survey sampling]] == Modeling == * [[Statistics/AnalysisOfVariance|Analysis of variance (ANOVA)]] * [[Statistics/BayesianHierarchicalModel|Bayesian hierarchical model]] * [[Statistics/Binning|Binning]] * [[Statistics/CausalInference|Causal inference]] * [[Statistics/CoxProportionalHazardsModel|Cox proportional hazards model]] * [[Statistics/CrossValidation|Cross-validation]] * [[Statistics/GeneralizedEstimatingEquation|Generalized estimating equation]] * [[Statistics/GeneralizedLeastSquares|Generalized least squares]] * [[Statistics/GeneralizedLinearModel|Generalized linear model]] * [[Statistics/InverseVarianceWeights|Inverse variance weights]] * [[Statistics/IterativelyReweightedLeastSquares|Iteratively reweighted least squares]] * [[Statistics/Lasso|Lasso]] * [[Statistics/LogisticModel|Logistic model]] * [[Statistics/Matching|Matching]] * [[Statistics/MaximumLikelihoodEstimation|Maximum likelihood estimation]] * [[Statistics/MultilevelModel|Multilevel model]] * [[Statistics/MixedModel|Mixed model]] * [[Statistics/MultilevelRegressionWithPoststratification|Multilevel regression with poststratification]] * [[Statistics/NeuralNetwork|Neural network]] * [[Statistics/OrdinaryLeastSquares|Ordinary least squares]] * [[Statistics/PostStratification|Post-stratification]] * [[Statistics/StandardErrors|Standard errors]] * [[Statistics/Residuals|Residuals]] == Econometrics == * [[Statistics/AutoregressiveModels|Autoregressive models]] * [[Statistics/CensoredAndTruncatedRegressionModels|Censored and Truncated regression models]] * [[Statistics/DifferenceInDifferences|Difference in differences]] * [[Statistics/EconometricsNotation|Econometrics notation]] * [[Statistics/FirstDifferencedEstimator|First-differenced estimator]] * [[Statistics/FixedEffectsModel|Fixed effects model]] * [[Statistics/InstrumentalVariablesMethod|Instrumental variables method]] * [[Statistics/PooledOrdinaryLeastSquaresModel|Pooled OLS model]] * [[Statistics/ProbitModel|Probit model]] * [[Statistics/RandomEffectsModel|Random effects model]] * [[Statistics/UnobservedComponentsModel|Unobserved components model]] * [[Statistics/VectorAutoregression|Vector autoregression]] == Psychometrics == * [[Statistics/FactorAnalysis|Factor analysis]] * [[Statistics/MediationAnalysis|Mediation analysis]] * [[Statistics/StructuralEquationModeling|Structural equation modeling]] (and related reading notes) == Non-parametric modeling == * [[Statistics/Bagging|Bagging]] * [[Statistics/DecisionTrees|Decision trees]] * [[Statistics/GradientBoosting|Gradient boosting]] * [[Statistics/RandomForest|Random forest]] * [[Statistics/SupportVectorMachines|Support-vector machines]] == Survey analysis == * [[Statistics/Calibration|Calibration]] * [[Statistics/DesignWeights|Design weights]] * [[Statistics/DoubleListExperiment|Double list experiment]] * [[Statistics/ExperienceSamplingMethod|Experience sampling method]] * [[Statistics/FocusGroup|Focus group]] * [[Statistics/GeneralizedRegressionEstimator|GREG estimator]] * [[Statistics/InverseProbabilityWeights|Inverse probability weights]] * [[Statistics/MarginOfError|Margin of error]] * [[Statistics/NonresponseBias|Nonresponse bias]] * [[Statistics/OnlineBulletinBoard|Online bulletin board]] * [[Statistics/QualitativeCoding|Qualitative coding]] * [[Statistics/ResponseRate|Response rate]] * [[Statistics/SurveyDisposition|Survey disposition]] * [[Statistics/SurveyInference|Survey inference]] * [[Statistics/SurveyNonresponse|Survey nonresponse]] (and related reading notes) * [[Statistics/SurveyWeights|Survey weights]] (and related reading notes) * [[Statistics/UnequalWeightingAndDesignEffects|Unequal weighting and design effects]] * [[Statistics/UnexpectedEventDuringSurveyDesignFramework|Unexpected event during survey design framework]] * [[Statistics/WeightingClassAdjustment|Weighting class adjustment]] == Natural language processing == * [[Statistics/BagOfWordsModel|Bag of words model]] * [[Statistics/NaturalLanguageProcessingDataPreparation|NLP data preparation]] * [[Statistics/WordEmbedding|Word embedding]] * [[Statistics/RecursiveSequencing|Recursive sequencing]] * [[Statistics/TopicModel|Topic model]] * [[Statistics/SentimentAnalysis|Sentiment analysis]] * [[Statistics/TextClassification|Text classification]] == Reading Notes == Note: reading notes for the above topics are listed on the respective pages, not here. * [[OnTheApplicationOfProbabilityTheoryToAgriculturalExperiments|On the Application of Probability Theory to Agricultural Experiments. Essay on Principles. Section 9]], Jerzy Splawa-Neyman, 1923 * [[OnStatisticsIndependentOfACompleteSufficientStatistic|On Statistics Independent of a Complete Sufficient Statistic]], D. Basu, 1955 * [[EstimationOfRelationshipsForLimitedDependentVariables|Estimation of Relationships for Limited Dependent Variables]], James Tobin, 1958 * [[MultipleFrameSurveys|Multiple Frame Surveys]], H.O. Hartley, 1962 * [[TheCommonStructureOfStatisticalModelsOfTruncationSampleSelectionAndLimitedDependentVariablesAndASimpleEstimatorForSuchModels|The Common Structure of Statistical Models of Truncation, Sample Selection and Limited Dependent Variables and a Simple Estimator for Such Models]], James J. Heckman, 1976 * [[SequentialSampleSelectionMethods|Sequential Sample Selection Methods]], James R. Chromy, 1979 * [[TheCentralRoleOfThePropensityScoreInObservationalStudiesForCausalEffects|The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects]], Paul R. Rosenbaum and Donald B. Rubin, 1983 * [[SamplingRarePopulations|Sampling Rare Populations]], Graham Kalton and Dallas W. Anderson, 1986 * [[MeasurementErrorModels|Measurement Error Models]], Wayne A. Fuller, 1987 * [[CommentNeyman1923AndCausalInferenceInExperimentsAndObservationalStudies|Comment: Neyman (1923) and Causal Inference in Experiments and Observational Studies]], Donald B. Rubin, 1990 * [[EvidenceOnTheValidityOfCrossSectionalAndLongitudinalLaborMarketData|Evidence on the Validity of Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Labor Market Data]], John Bound, Charles Brown, Greg J. Duncan, and Willard L. Rodgers, 1994 * [[EstimationInDualFrameSurveysWithComplexDesigns|Estimation in Dual Frame Surveys With Complex Designs]], J.N.K. Rao and C.J. Skinner, 1996 * [[StatisticalModelingTheTwoCultures|Statistical Modeling: The Two Cultures]], Leo Breiman, 2001 * [[MeasurementValidity|Measurement Validity: A Shared Standard for Qualitative and Quantitative Research]], Robert Adcock and David Collier, 2001 * [[DoubleSampling|Double Sampling]], Michael Hidiroglou, 2001 * [[HierarchicalLinearModels|Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods]], Stephen W. Raudenbush and Anthony S. Bryk, 2002 * [[TheInfluenceOfViolationsOfAssumptionsOnMultilevelParameterEstimatesAndTheirStandardErrors|The influence of violations of assumptions on multilevel parameter estimates and their standard errors]], Cora J.M. Maas and Joop J. Hox, 2003 * [[AscertainingTheValidityOfIndividualProtocols|Ascertaining the validity of individual protocols from Web-based personality inventories]], John A. Johnson, 2004 * [[ASimulationStudyOfCellCollapsingInPoststratification|A simulation study of cell collapsing in poststratification]]; Jay J. Kim, Linda Tompkins, Jianzhu Li, and Richard Valliant; 2005 * [[IsOLSWithABinaryDependentVariableReallyOK|Is OLS with a binary dependent variable really OK?: Estimating (mostly) TSCS models with binary dependent variables and fixed effects]], Nathaniel Beck, 2011 * [[AlternativeSurveySampleDesigns|Alternative survey sample designs: Sampling with multiple overlapping frames]], Sharon L. Lohr, 2011 * [[IdentifyingCarelessResponsesInSurveyData|Identifying Careless Responses in Survey Data]], Andrew Meade, S. Bartholomew Craig, 2012 * [[RespondentUseOfStraightliningAsAResponseStrategyInEducationSurveyResearch|Respondent use of straight-lining as a response strategy in education survey research: Prevalence and implications]]; James S. Cole, Alexander C. Mc``Cormick, Robert M. Gonyea; 2012 * [[EstimatingMeasurementErrorInAnnualJobEarnings|Estimating Measurement Error in Annual Job Earnings]], John M. Abowd and Martha H. Stinson, 2013 * [[WhyAskWhy|Why ask why? Forward causal inference and reverse causal questions]], Andrew Gelman and Guido Imbens, 2013 * [[TheTable2Fallacy|The Table 2 Fallacy: Presenting and Interpreting Confounder and Modifier Coefficients]], Daniel Westreich and Sander Greenland, 2013 * [[BeyondPowerCalculations|Beyond Power Calculations: Assessing Type S (Sign) and Type M (Magnitude) Errors]], Andrew Gelman and John Carlin, 2014 * [[HowRobustStandardErrorsExposeMethodologicalProblemsTheyDoNotFix|How Robust Standard Errors Expose Methodological Problems They Do Not Fix, and What to Do About It]], Gary King and Margaret E. Roberts, 2015 * [[StraitliningInWebSurveyPanelsOverTime|Straightlining in Web survey panels over time]], Matthias Schonlau and Vera Toepoel, 2015 * [[APractitionersGuideToClusterRobustInference|A Practitioner’s Guide to Cluster-Robust Inference]], A. Colin Cameron and Douglas L. Miller, 2015 * [[ImputationUnderInformativeSampling|Imputation Under Informative Sampling]]; Emily Berg, Jae-Kwang Kim, and Chris Skinner; 2016 * [[ConditionalProbabilityEstimation|Conditional Probability Estimation]], Marco E. G. V. Cattaneo, 2016 * [[SamplingBasedVsDesignBasedUncertaintyInRegressionAnalysis|Sampling-based vs. Design-based Uncertainty in Regression Analysis]]; Alberto Abadie, Susan Athey, Guido W. Imbens, and Jeffrey M. Wooldridge; 2017 * [[WhenShouldYouAdjustStandardErrorsForClustering|When Should You Adjust Standard Errors for Clustering?]]; Alberto Abadie, Susan Athey, Guido W. Imbens, and Jeffrey M. Wooldridge; 2017 * [[WhyPropensityScoresShouldNotBeUsedForMatching|Why Propensity Scores Should Not Be Used for Matching]], Gary King and Richard Nielsen, 2019 * [[RegressionAndOtherStories|Regression and Other Stories]], Andrew Gelman, Jennifer Hill, and Aki Vehtari, 2020 * [[UnexpectedEventDuringSurveyDesign|Unexpected Event during Surveys Design: Promise and Pitfalls for Causal Inference]]; Jordi Muñoz, Albert Falcó-Gimeno, and Enrique Hernández; 2020 * [[APermutationTestOnComplexSampleData|A Permutation Test on Complex Sample Data]], Daniell Toth, 2020 * [[ExactAdaptiveConfidenceIntervalsForSmallAreas|Exact Adaptive Confidence Intervals for Small Areas]], Kyle C. Burris and Peter D. Hoff, 2020 * [[TheIndependentContractorWorkforce|The Independent Contractor Workforce: New Evidence on Its Size and Composition and Ways to Improve Its Measurement in Household Surveys]]; Katharine G. Abraham, Brad J. Hershbein, Susan N. Houseman, and Beth C. Truesdale; 2023 * [[UsingHierarchicalModelsToEstimateHeterogeneousEffects|Using Hierarchical Models to Estimate Heterogeneous Effects]], Joshua Alley, 2023 * [[OutOfOneMany|Out of One, Many: Using Language Models to Simulate Human Samples]]; Lisa P. Argyle, Ethan C. Busby, Nancy Fulda, Joshua R. Gubler, Christopher Rytting, and David Wingate; 2023 * [[CausalModelsForLongitudinalAndPanelData|Causal Models for Longitudinal and Panel Data: A Survey]], Dmitry Arkhangelsky and Guido Imbens, 2023 * [[TheImpactOfMixingSurveyModesOnEstimatesOfChange|The Impact of Mixing Survey Modes on Estimates of Change: A Quasi-Experimental Study]], Alexandru Cernat and Joseph W. Sakshaug, 2023 * [[SurveysOfConsumersTechnicalReport|Surveys of Consumers Technical Report: Technical Documentation for the 2024 Methodological Transition to Web Surveys]], 2024 * [[TheEffectOfOnlineInterviewsOnTheUniversityOfMichiganSurveyOfConsumerSentiment|The effect of online interviews on the University of Michigan Survey of Consumer Sentiment]], Ryan Cummings and Ernie Tedeschi, 2024 * [[TheMicroTaskMarketForLemons|The micro-task market for lemons: data quality on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk]]; Douglas J. Ahler, Carolyn E. Roush, and Gaurav Sood; 2024 * [[AdaptingToMisspecification|Adapting to Misspecification]]; Timothy B. Armstrong, Patrick Kline, and Liyang Sun; 2024 * [[LinkingSurveyAndLinkedInData|Linking Survey and LinkedIn Data: Understanding Usage and Consent Patterns]]; Tarek Al Baghal, Alexander Wenz, Paulo Serôdio, Shujin Liu, Curtis Jessop, and Luke Sloan; 2024 * [[SmallAreaPredictionForExponentialDispersionFamiliesUnderInformativeSampling|Small Area Prediction for Exponential Dispersion Families Under Informative Sampling]], Emily Berg and Abdulhakeem Eideh, 2024 * [[AreaLevelModelBasedSmallAreaEstimationOfDivergenceIndexesInTheSpanishLabourForceSurvey|Area-Level Model-Based Small Area Estimation of Divergence Indexes in the Spanish Labour Force Survey]]; Esteban Cabello, Domingo Morales, Agustín Pérez; 2024 * [[TextMessagesToFacilitateTheTransitionToWebFirstSequentialMixedModeDesignsInLongitudinalSurveys|Text Messages to Facilitate the Transition to Web-First Sequential Mixed-Mode Designs in Longitudinal Surveys]], Pablo Cabrera-Álvarez and Peter Lynn, 2024 * [[OptimalAllocationUnderAnticipatedNonresponse|Optimal Allocation Under Anticipated Nonresponse]], Jonathan Mendelson and Michael R Elliott, 2024 * [[MeasurementErrorWhenSurveyingIssuePositions|Measurement error when surveying issue positions: a MultiTrait MultiError approach]]; Kim Backström, Alexandru Cernat, Rasmus Sirén, and Peter Söderlund; 2025 * [[SelfReportingNewsUseInSituAndInRetrospect|Self-Reporting News Use in Situ and in Retrospect]]; Danit Shalev, Teresa K Naab, and Yariv Tsfati; 2025 * [[WhereToPlaceSensitiveQuestions|Where to place sensitive questions? Experiments on survey response order and measures of discriminatory attitudes]]; Amanda Sahar d’Urso, Tabitha Bonilla, and Genni Bogdanowicz; 2025 * [[DifferenceInDifferencesDesigns|Difference-in-Differences Designs: A Practitioner’s Guide]]; Andrew Baker, Brantly Callaway, Scott Cunningham, Andrew Goodman-Bacon, and Pedro H. C. Sant’Anna; 2025 * [[InferringAPopulationCompositionFromSurveyDataWithNonignorableNonresponse|Inferring a Population Composition From Survey Data With Nonignorable Nonresponse: Borrowing Information From External Sources]], Veronica Ballerini and Brunero Liseo, 2025 * [[ANewGeneralClassOfDiscreteBivariateDistributionsConstructedByTheUsualStochasticOrder|A New General Class of Discrete Bivariate Distributions Constructed by the Usual Stochastic Order]]; Min Ju Lee, Na Young Yoo, and Ji Hwan Cha; 2025 * [[LinearModelEstimationAndPredictionForPGreaterThanN|Linear Model Estimation and Prediction for p > n]], Ronald Christensen, 2025 * [[NonparametricBlockBootstrapKolmogorovSmirnovGoodnessOfFitTest|Nonparametric Block Bootstrap Kolmogorov-Smirnov Goodness-of-Fit Test]]; Mathew Chandy, Elizabeth D. Schifano, Jun Yan, and Xianyang Zhang; 2025 * [[OnConsistentImputationOfMissingPredictorsInLinearRegressionModels|On Consistent Imputation of Missing Predictors in Linear Regression Models]], David Oakes, 2025 * [[UsingTotalMarginOfErrorToAccountForNonSamplingErrorInElectionPolls|Using Total Margin of Error to Account for Non-Sampling Error in Election Polls]], Jeff Dominitz and Charles F. Manski, 2025 * [[VisualizingKendallsTauAndHiddenStructuresInRankedData|Visualizing Kendall’s τ and Hidden Structures in Ranked Data]]; Nicholas D. Edwards, Enzo de Jong, Feng Liu, and Stephen T. Ferguson; 2025 * [[BayesianSampleSizeCalculationsForExternalValidationStudiesOfRiskPredictionModels|Bayesian Sample Size Calculations for External Validation Studies of Risk Prediction Models]]; Mohsen Sadatsafavi, Paul Gustafson, Solmaz Setayeshgar, Laure Wynants, and Richard D. Riley; 2026 * [[HowAndWhenToUseCausalAndAssociationalLanguage|How and when to use causal and associational language]], Jeremy A Labrecque and Katrina L Kezios, 2026 * [[OnTheNumberOfReplicationsInResamplingTestsAndMonteCarloSimulationStudies|On the Number of Replications in Resampling Tests and Monte Carlo Simulation Studies]], Daniel Gaigall and Julian Gerstenberg, 2026 ---- CategoryRicottone CategoryMathematics