Yemeni Democratization
A history of Yemeni democratization.
Contents
Kingdom of Yemen
As the Ottoman Empire declined in the 19th century, Zaydi separatists became increasingly influential in the Yemen vilayet. Following several rebellions, the Treaty of Daan in 1911 finally granted legitimate authority to Imam Yahya.
The Armistice of Mudros required the Ottomans to withdraw from Yemen, leading Imam Yahya to seize Sanaa and declare an independent emirate of Yemen.
Imam Yahya was assassinated in 1948 and his son Ahmad bin Yahya succeeded him. His reign was characterized by attempted coups and assassinations. He was gravely injured in 1961 by one such assassination attempt, making his son Muhammad al-Badr the de facto head of state.
Yemen Arab Republic
Ahmad bin Yahya died in 1962 and his son Muhammad al-Badr succeeded him. He quickly was deposed by Abdullah as-Sallal, who declared a Yemen Arab Republic. Al-Badr did however escape the 26 September Revolution, and rallied the northern Zaydi tribes to continue fighting for him in the North Yemen Civil War. Ultimately though, when Saudi Arabia recognized the republican government in 1970, he was forced to abandon his claim.
As-Sallal himself was overthrown in a nonviolent coup in 1967, leading to the presidency of Abdul Rahman al-Eryani, who himself was also overthrown by the June 13th Movement in 1974. Ibrahim al-Hamdi established a military junta and ruled until his assassination in 1977. Ahmad al-Ghashmi then became president, but was also assassinated the next year.
Ali Abdullah Saleh became president and, with U.S. support, violently suppressed the leftist factions that had formed the oppositional National Democratic Front (NDF) also known as Jabha. He established an alliance with the powerful northern tribes, especially the Hashid federation led by sheikh Abdullah al-Ahmar. He founded the General People's Congress (GPC) as the sole political party. He transformed the small Republican Guard into a tribal militia.
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen
The British captured Aden in 1839. As a key port for British India, it came to be known as the Aden Settlement. Later in the 19th century, the British established a larger Aden Protectorate by vassalizing the small sultanates across the southern coast. The Ottomans did not intervene as the British did not advance further north into the Yemen vilayet.
In 1937, the Aden Colony was established as a Crown colony separate from India.
Macmillan sought to reorganize British interests in Yemen. He brokered the creation of a Federation of South Arabia, a confederal state that would have remained a British protectorate and allowed direct British rule in Aden. The State of Aden had an appointed royal governor.
The National Liberation Front (NLF), led by Qahtan al-Shaabi, launched an insurgency against British rule in 1963. It was an amalgamation of movements that suffered from infighting. Wilson announced a plan for withdrawing from Yemen and the protectorate agreements by 1968. The NLF however did not trust in the agreement, and continued their campaign. In November 1967, the British were forced to abandon Aden and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY) was declared.
The NLF saw heavy infighting even before the British completed their withdrawal. Abdul Fattah Ismail led a Marxist faction and had been repeatedly elected to the front's executive council. A right-wing faction then forced him into exile in 1968. In 1969 however, the Marxist faction seized control through the Corrective Action. A presidential council was established with 5 members including the chair, Salim Rubaya Ali. Ismail became the secretary general.
The First Yemenite War was a brief border war between North and South Yemen in 1972. It led to the Cairo Agreement which established a consensus for uniting Yemen.
Then in 1978, Ismail seized total power and had Ali executed. The NLF became the Yemeni Socialist Party (YSP) and all other parties were banned.
The Second Yemenite War broke out in 1979. Perhaps because it was a clear victory for the south, nationalism was inflamed and the right wing of the party abandoned Ismail; he again went into exile in 1980 and Ali Nasir Muhammad succeeded him as president. The South Yemeni Civil War began at a politburo meeting in 1986. In what became known as the January 13 Massacre, Ali Nasir's guards attacked Ismail and other party leaders in his faction. Ismail himself was killed shortly after. Following two weeks of violence that killed most of the political leadership, Ali Salem al-Beidh emerged as the new effective head of state.
Al-Beidh's priority was unification with the north, which was completed in 1990.
Republic of Yemen
After unification, Saleh became president and al-Beidh became vice president.
Tensions between north and south quickly re-emerged, and in 1994 escalated to the re-declaration of an independent South Yemen. Saleh used the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, led by Ayman al-Zawahiri, to quickly recapture the south and end the short Civil War. Saleh remained closely tied to al-Zawahiri after his organization was folded into Al-Qaeda in 2001.
In 2011, as part of the Arab Spring movement, mass protests against Saleh emerged. In February, he announced that he would not seek reelection in 2013. This did not satisfy the protesters, who continued to face violence suppression from police forces. The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) attempted to broker a transition but Saleh abandoned negotiations in May. Sheikh Sadiq al-Ahmar, who had by now inherited leadership of the Hashid from his father, shifted his support to the opposition.
Saleh was injured in a June bombing, and while being taken to Saudi Arabia for treatment, vice president Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi declared himself acting president. Saleh did return in September, but shortly after chose to sign the GCC deal. He was granted immunity and elections were organized in February 2012. Hadi, who had been serving as acting president, was elected by a vast majority.
A Zaydi separatist movement led by Abdul-Malik al-Houthi seized Sanaa in 2014. This movement is generally known as the Houthis. Hadi was kept under house arrest and forced to resign, although he eventually escaped to Aden. In early 2015 the Houthis dissolved parliament and declared a Revolutionary Committee.
Hadi regrouped republican forces in Aden, which he declared the interim capital. A coalition force led by Saudi Arabia intervened in March; initially this was a blockade with targeted airstrikes to stall the Houthi advance. The Houthis still only control North Yemen.
In 2017, the Southern Transitional Council (STC) emerged as another rival for power. With substantial support from the UAE, they rapidly consolidated control over all of South Yemen, even seizing Aden in 2018.
In 2022, Hadi resigned and handed his interim powers to the Presidential Leadership Council (PLC). This is a presidential council with 8 members including the chair, a position held by Rashad al-Alimi. Representatives of the STC held 3 of these seats.
The Red Sea Crisis saw Houthis using missiles and drones to attack commercial ships beginning in late 2023. The U.S., UK, and Israel launched a years-long airstrike campaign to deter further attacks. This was substantially escalated in March 2025 by Trump, and then abruptly abandoned in May when the Houthis agreed to stop attacking American ships.
In December 2025, the STC launched a military operation to consolidate control over all of South Yemen. This was followed by an announcement that an independence referendum would be held. PLC forces mobilized in January and, within a week, had effectively defeated the STC permanently.